Theories of meaning and Types of Meaning

 A. THEORIES OF MEANING

According to Davidson, A theory of meaning is an empirical theory.[1]

According to Brian Loar, Davidson said that an adequate theory of meaning for a particular language will satisfy these conditions: first, exactly on each sentence of the language, it will ‘give the meaning ‘for each of them; second, the theory of meaning will show how the meaning of a sentences is a function of its parts and structure; and, thirdly, the theory of meaning will do these things in a testable way; it will be suitably empirical.[2]

Based on Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy theory of meaning is a theory which semantics contents is assigned as the expressions of language. Approaches to semantics may be divided according to whether they assign propositions as the meaning of sentences and, if they do, what view they take of the nature of these propositions.[3]

Futhermore, theory of meaning based on a foundational theory of meaning is a theory which states the fact in the virtue of which expressions have the semantics contents that they have.[4]

According to talked about explanation, we can conclude that the theory of meaning is the theory which semantics contents is assigned as the expression of language that for a particular language will satisfy these conditions: first, exactly on each sentence of the language, it will ‘give the meaning ‘for each of them; second, the theory of meaning will show how the meaning of a sentences is a function of its parts and structure; and, thirdly, the theory of meaning will do these things in a testable way; it will be suitably empirical.”

1. The Conceptual Theory of Meaning

According to Karim Nazari Bagha, In the theory of meaning, words and things are strightly related through  the mediation of concepts of the mind. The concept of this theory is just explained.

The conceptual theory of meaning or mentalist theory is maintained by Chomsky. He believes that intuition and introspection must play a crucial part in our investigation of language.[5]

2. The Aim Theory of Meaning

The aim theory of meaning is to state something knowledge which suffice to interprate an utterances of the language that applies by the speaker. Its means that theory of meaning has aim to interprate the utterances by the speaker based on context.

3. The Behaviouristic Theory of Meaning

The term context of situation is used by two scholars, first by an anthropologist called Malinowski, and later by a British linguist called Firth. Both of these scholars stated meaning in terms of the context in which language is used. These two maintained that the description of a language is not complete without some reference to the context of situation in which the language operated. A more extreme view sees the meaning of the linguistic elements as the situation in which the word is used.[6]

Its means that the behavioristic theory of meaning is when the language used by the context. The word will have different meaning in the different context, for example when we say “goat”, it will have different meaning in the different place, when we say “goad” in the restaurant, our friend wouldn’t offended because the context is we be in the restaurant and the context is only about food, however if we say that in other place, the meaning of that word will different too.

B. KINDS OF MEANING BY GEOFERRY LEECH

Geoffrey Leech in his ‘Semantic- A Study of meaning’ (1974) breaks down meaning into seven types or ingredients giving primacy to conceptual meaning.

1. Conceptual Meaning or Denotative Meaning

Conceptual meaning sometimes also called denotative meaning or cognitive meaning. The conceptual meaning is widely assumed to be the central factor in linguistics communication, and it can be shown to be integral to the essential functioning of language in away that other types of meaning are not (which is not say that conceptual meaning is the most important element of every act of linguistics communication).[7]

The conceptual meaning is the basic propositional meaning which corresponds to the primary dictionary definition. Such a meaning is stylistically neutral and objective as opposed to other kinds of associative meanings. [8]

For example, when we apply the sound defines positively, its means that we features a possesses. However, when we apply sound of negatively, its means that we features not posses.[9]

2. Connotative Meaning

Connotative meaning is the communicative value an utterance by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content. It is more than dictionary meaning. For example is the right conceptual of word woman is defined by three  features  (human,        –   female, +adult), however the psychosocial connotations could be (gregarious), (having maternal instinct) or typical (rather than invariable) attributes of womanhood such as (babbling), (experienced in cookery), (skirt or dress wearing). [10]

3. Social Meaning

Social meaning is that which  a section of language  conveys  about  the social condition of its use. The decoding the text by the social meaning is dependent on our knowledge of stylistics and other variations of language. We recognize some word or pronounciation as being dialectical i.e. as telling us something of the geographical or social origin of the speaker; other features of language tell us something of the social relationship between the speaker and hearer: we have a scale of ‘status’ usage, for example, descending from formal and literary English at one end to colloquial, familiar, and eventually slang English at the other.[11]

4. Affective Meaning

Affective meaning is an sort of meaning which an effect the personal feeling of speakers, including  the speaker attitude to the listener, or speaker attitude to what they talking about.[12]

According to Leech, Affective meaning in sort meaning is conveying an utterance pass of the conceptual or connotative meaning of the word explicitly. For example, when we want to get quite attention from the people, we can say either:

• I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a

or:

• Will you belt up.

Factors such as intonation and voice are also important here.  The impression of politeness in (a) can be reversed by a tone of biting sarcasm; sentence (b) can be turned into a playful remark between intimates if delivered with the intonation of a mild request.[13]

5. Reflected Meaning

Reflected meaning involves an interconnection on the lexical level of language. Reflected meaning is the meaning that arises in case of multiple conceptual meaning, when one senses word forms part of our response to another sense.[14]

Its mean that the reflected meaning is the meaning a word that has more than one conceptual meaning or the meaning of that words are multiple.

For example, on hearing in  church service the synonymous expressions the Comforter and The Holy Ghost, both referring to the third person of the Trinity. In non-religious meanings, the comforter sounds warm and comforting (although the religious context, it means the strengthener or supporter), while the holy sounds awesome.[15]

6. Collocative Meaning

Collocative meaning consists of the associations a word acquires on  account  of  the  meanings  of words  which  tend  to  occur  in  its environment. For example are pretty and handsome share common ground in the meaning ‘good-looking’,  but may be distinguished by the range of nouns with which  they  are  likely to co-occur or (to use the languist’s term) collocate:

1. The meaning of word pretty can be various, for example like girl, boy, woman, flower, colour and etc.
2. The meaning of word boy can be various, for example like boy, man, car, vessel, overcoat and etc.[16]

7. Thematic Meaning

Thematic meaning is the meaning that is communicated   by the way in which a speaker  or writer  organizes  the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.  It is often felt, for example, that an active sentence such as (1) has a different meaning from its passive equivalent (2), although in conceptual content they seem to be the same:

• Mrs.Bessie Smith donated the first
• The first prize was donated by Mrs.Bessie [17]

8. Associatve Meaning: A Summary Terms

Associative meaning refers to the particular qualities or characteristics beyond denotative meaning that people commonly think of (correctly or uncorrectly ) in relation to a word or phrase.

Associative meaning refers to the various types of meaning that are distinct from conceptual meaning, that are connotative meaning, thematic meaning, social meaning, affective meaning, reflective meaning and collocative meaning.

For example is a common noun with an almost universal associative meaning is nurse. Most people automatically associate nurse with woman. This unconscious association is to widespread that the term male nurse has had to be coined to counterasct its effect.[18]

 

 Reference

Bagha, Karim Nazari. “A Short Introduction of Semantics.” Journal of Language Teaching and Research (2011): 1411-1419. pdf.

Macfarlen, John. UCB PHIL (2015): 1-7. Pdf.

Loar, Brian. The Theories of Meaning. n.d. Document

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 26 January 2010. Document. 15 September 2017.

Leech, Geoffrey. Semantics: The Study of Meaning 2nd Edition. New York: Viking Pinguin Inc., 1881. pdf. Page 22

http://universeofenglish.blogspot.co.id/2009/02/seven-types-of-meaning-in-semantics.html

http://kristofel-bere.blogspot.com/2010/12/seven -types-of-meaning.html

https://www.thoughtco.com/associative -meaning-language.html

 

Cognitive Code Learning

A. The Meaning of Cognitive Code Learning by Expert

The Cognitive Theory arose not as an explicit teaching method, but as a reaction to Structuralism and to behavioral principles. The cognitive code theory is blend between two theory of learning the second language, they are psychological and the linguistic framework.

Cognitive-code learning refers to a theory of second language teaching and learning rooted in cognitivist psychology and structural applied linguistics developed in the1960s. The theory emphasizes the central role of cognition in the conscious and explicit learning of the rules of a language as a code. The cognitive-code approach to learning a second language sees it as a study of language as a complex system with the goal of gaining conscious control of the grammatical, lexical (vocabulary), and auditory patterns.

Firstly, Richard and S. Rodgers (2014:26), they said that cognitive code learning theory (CCLT) is a theory of L1 and L2 studies and research. This view has developed in the 1960s as an alternative to Behaviorism. He also said that CCLT is a subset of cognitive learning approach.

Then, Zhang Fachun and Peng Jingxia, they have an opinion that The Cognitive Approach also called the cognitive-code approach, or the cognitive learning approach, is approach to foreign language teaching which is based on the belief that language learning is a process which involves active method processes and not simply the forming of habits. It emphasizes on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system.

According to Natalya David co, she said that The cognitive approach focuses on mental processes of learning where perception and computation of information are postulated to be dependent on prior knowledge, and language is regarded as a ‘vehicle’ providing access to cognitive content.

Gabriel Tejada Molina, Maria Luisa Pérez Canado, and Gloria Luque Agulo said that The Cognitive Theory arose not as an explicit teaching method, but as a reaction to Structuralism and to behavioral principles. A set of new beliefs of L1 language and learning involving the notions of universality, creativity and innateness constitute some of the arguments that led to the demise of the Structuraly and Audio lingual framework.

The last is Chastain 1971 and Carroll 1964, Cognitive-code learning theory proposes that learning a second language requires explicit instruction and a study of the language as a complex and rule-governed system

Based on the opinion of the expert we can conclude that cognitive code learning is one of the method in teaching and learning the second language which involves active method processes and not simply the forming of habits and focuses on mental processes of learning where perception and computation of information are postulated to be dependent onprior knowledge, and language is regarded as a ‘vehicle’ providing access to cognitive content.

Cognitive code learning was not so much a method as it was an approach that emphasized a conscious awareness of rules and their applications to second language learning. It was a reaction to the strictly behavioristic practices of the ALM, and ironically, a return of some of the practices of Grammar Translation. As teachers and materials developers saw that incessant parroting of pottentially rote material was not creating communicatively proficient learners, a new twist was needed, and innovation was short-lived, for as surely as rote drillingbored students, overt cognitive attention to the rules, paradigms, intricacies, and exceptions of a language over-taxed the mental reserves of the language students.

The profession needed some spicc and verve, and innovative minds in the spirited 1970s were up to the challenge.

2. The Principles of Cognitive Code Learning

There are six basic principles of cognitive code learning, that are:

• Learners Being the Center of Classroom Teaching

It holds that students should be taken as the center in the teaching activities. The language teacher plays as an organizer or guider and encourages the students to learn actively and creatively. The teacher has the responsibility to teach the students not only language knowledge and language skills, but also the ability to learn by them selves.

• Learning Being Based on Understanding

It holds that learning is not only the process of contracting habits but also a creative activity requiring teachers to abide by the language rules. The students can only perform after they have understood the system of the language.In a Cognitive Approach classroom,meaningful learning and meaningful practice are emphasized during the entire learning process.

• Giving Equal Importance to the Four Skills

The Cognitive Approach attaches equal importance to the four skills of listening, speaking,reading and writing from the beginning of the language course. It means that listening and reading should proceed speaking and writing, because they are the means of developing and expanding competence, without which there will be no performance. When a foreign language learner can resort to all the possible target language resources, leaning will be more effective.

• Managing to Employ the Native Tongue

The cognitive approach believes that when the students, especially adults study foreign language, the identity of grammar, rules and concepts between the native language and the foreign language shift to the process of foreign language learning, which promotes learning language. Therefore, the cognitive approach maintains clearly that foreign language teaching employs native language.

• Analyzing Errors

Students’ mistakes are a necessary and natural phenomenon and a feature of the language as they progress in the second language. Students should be led to learn and use the language by making hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and then make corrections.What the teacher should do is to analyze the mistakes, so that they could find the cause and do some remedial work accordingly.

• Making Use of Audio-visual Aids and Modernization Teaching Techniques

The Cognitive Approach holds that audio-visual aids and modern teaching techniques can make English teaching situational and communicational. At the same time, using modern teaching techniques such as, multimedia, Internet,language lab and so on, not only can enhance the information capacity, and make students study consciously in the class but also relieve teachers’ physical consumption, thus promoting their focus on every teaching period all the time.

3. Stength of Cognitive Code Learning

The cognitive code learning has some strengtness and advantages over the other foreign language learning and teaching theories:

1. It revived the re-emergence of grammar in the classroom.
2. It put more emphasis on guided discovery of the rules: this is the rule-governed nature of language.
3. It rejected the habit formation of Behaviorist theory. There is language acquisition rather than habit formation.
4. Learning is not a habit formation but requires cognitive processing and mental effort because learners are thinking beings.
5. It stressed on the learning of the rules via meaningful practice and creativity.
6. It liberated the teachers from the strait jackets of Grammar Translation Approach, Audio-Lingualism and Structural-situational methods.
7. It changed the attitude of teachers towards errors.
8. With Chomsky’s revolution (1965, 1976, 1980, 1981a, 1981b, 1982) the attention of foreign language teacher turned to “deep structure” of language within more cognitive learning.
9. The theory attaches more importance to the learner’s understanding of the structure of the foreign language than to the facility in using that structure.
10. By means of the Presentation, Practice and Production methodology (PPP) learners gain a clear understanding of a grammatical rule before they practice it in meaningful contexts.
11. This theory emphasizes the role of learning in behavior and admits the possible role of inherited mechanisms.
12. It practically focuses on the individual student and his/her learning process and progress.
13. It involves very frequent assessments (like pop-quizzes) of the student’s learning and retention since new skills and experiences build directly upon previous ones

4. Weakness of Cognitive Code Learning

There are some weakness of cognitive code learning:

1. CCLT is essentially a theoretical proposal because it did not lead to the development of any teaching method in relation to classroom procedures and activities.
2. There is little use of examples from authentic material.
3. It never took off in a big way; this theory did not gain support over time.
4. Human thinking is said to be an invisible process, and therefore cognitive processes are hypothetical constructs.
5. As a theory, it often ignores past experiences and culture influence while we process information.
6. CCLT does not consider individual personalities of people and how personalities are formed; there is too much emphasis on social context.
7. It is a depersonalized theory; in other words, it does not take into consideration feelings or unconscious actions or reactions.
8. It overlooks the influence of individuals’ biology (DNA), learning differences in relation to hormonal processes and brain development.
9. It falls short in the explanation of relationship between two main concepts, which are observational learning and self-efficacy.
10. The cognitive emphasis on rules was taken as behaviorist rote drilling.
11. Another important criticism is that biology, genetics, culture, and past experience have not been sufficiently tested as factors in mental processing.
12. Another disadvantage is that it is extremely time intensive on the part of the foreign language teacher or educator, who, acts as a facilitator, has to invest a huge amount of time and effort on a per student basis.
13. The teacher must be constantly evaluating and recording the needs of the students indifferent skills.
14. This method had limited as the cognitive emphasis on rules and paradigms proved as unattractive as behaviorist rote drilling.

E. Procedures of Cognitive Code Learning

The procedure of cognitive code learning can be divided into three step, that are:

• Linguistic Comprehension

The Cognitive Approach lays emphasis on comprehension, which is the basis of language learning for the students.All the students’ language practices and drills should be carried on the basis of linguistic-comprehension. Therefore, the Cognitive Approach takes linguistic comprehension as the first stage.

• Developing Linguistic Competence

In this step, two purposes are represented: first, checking the students’ comprehension of the knowledge which they have learned; second, cultivating the students’ ability of applying the knowledge of language. The practices and drills can be carried on through the following exercises, like Discrimination, Multiple-choice, Physical response, True-false, Selection of usual, Translation, Definitions, Dictation

• Linguistic Performance

In this step, the reaching task is to foster the students’ ability to listening, speaking, reading and writing by applying the language materials, especially to train their genuine communicative ability.

References

Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy, Second Edition. San Francisco : San Francisco State University.

Davidco, N. (2011). A Cognitive Approach to Teaching English for Special Purposes (ESP) . Education Journal, 82-89.

Demirezen, M. (2014). Cognitive Code Learning Theory and Foreign Language Learning. International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET), 309-317.

Fachun , Z., & Jinxia, P. (n.d.). A Cognitive Teaching Approach and Its Application in College English Education of China. Education Journal, 1-9.

Hinkel, E. (2011). Cognitive Code Learning. Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning, 1-2.

Molina, T. G., Perez Canado, M. L., & Agullo, G. L. (n.d.). Current approaches and teaching methods. Bilingual programmes. Education Journal, 1-56.

 

 

CROSS CULTURAL UNDERSTANDING (GENDER ROLES)

The Definition of Male and Female

Gender roles are cultural and personal. They determine how males and females should think, speak, dress, and interact within the context of society. Learning plays a role in this process of shaping gender roles. These gender schemas are deeply embedded cognitive frameworks regarding what defines masculine and feminine. While various socializing agents—parents, teachers, peers, movies, television, music, books, and religion—teach and reinforce gender roles throughout the lifespan, parents probably exert the greatest influence, especially on their very young offspring.

As mentioned previously, sociologists know that adults perceive and treat female and male infants differently. Parents probably do this in response to their having been recipients of gender expectations as young children. Traditionally, fathers teach boys how to fix and build things; mothers teach girls how to cook, sew, and keep house. Children then receive parental approval when they conform to gender expectations and adopt culturally accepted and conventional roles. All of this is reinforced by additional socializing agents, such as the media. In other words, learning gender roles always occurs within a social context, the values of the parents and society being passed along to the children of successive generations.

Gender roles adopted during childhood normally continue into adulthood. At home, people have certain presumptions about decision‐making, child‐rearing practices, financial responsibilities, and so forth. At work, people also have presumptions about power, the division of labor, and organizational structures. None of this is meant to imply that gender roles, in and of themselves, are good or bad; they merely exist. Gender roles are realities in almost everyone’s life.

Gender roles are sets of societal norms which dictate the types of behaviors which are generally considered acceptable, appropriate, or desirable for people based on their actual or perceived sex or sexuality. The term gender role was first coined by John Money in 1955 during his study of intersex individuals to describe the manners in which these individuals expressed their status as a male or female in a situation where no clear biological assignment existed.

Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of femininity and masculinity, although there are exceptions and variations. Some examples of gender roles include expectations for male versus female clothing, behavior, and expression. The specifics regarding these gendered expectations sometimes vary among different cultures, such as different religious groups, while other times are shared among many cultures. There is ongoing debate among theorists and scientists about the extent to which gender roles and their variations are biologically determined, and the extent to which they are socially constructed.

Various groups, most notably the feminist movement, have led efforts to change aspects of prevailing gender roles that they believe are oppressive or inaccurate. In addition, societal progress influences the alteration of gender roles in many areas such as the media, politics, and criminal justice.

The Different of Male and Female Role

Male and female  have many different, this different is influence from factor of the biological. There are three factors which make different of male and female:

1. Hormones, Social Behavior, and Cognitive Skills

Biological factors that are thought to shape gender differences include hormones and lateralization of brain function. Hormones may organize a biological predisposition to be masculine or feminine during the prenatal period, and the increase in hormones during puberty may activate that predisposition. In addition, social experiences may alter the levels of hormones, such as testosterone.

2. Brain Lateralization and Gender Differences

Gender differences in the organization of the brain may be reflected in the greater lateralization of brain functioning in males, which may help explain male success at spatial and math skills. It may also explain female tendencies to be more flexible than males and to withstand injury to the brain more effectively.

3. Biology and Cultural Expectations

Androgenized female fetuses may become girls who behave more like boys and have more traditionally male interests. Such girls are also better at visual-spatial tasks thanother girls. However, environmental factors are also influential in boys and girls developing nontraditional gender-based abilities and interests.

From the factors above, male and female have many different. The different of male and female are:

1. The different of male and female in development

Of the many presumed differences between the behaviors of males and females, some are real, some are found only inconsistently, and some are wholly mythical.

Girls are more physically and neurologically advanced at birth. Boys have more mature muscular development but are more vulnerable to disease and hereditary anomalies. Girls excel early in verbal skills, but boys excel in visual-spatial and math skills. Boys’ superior mathematic abilities, however, reflect only a better grasp of geometry, which depends on visual-spatial abilities. Boys are more aggressive, and girls more nurturant. Boys have more reading, speech, and emotional problems than girls.

2. The different of male and female in the Education by Anna Gasparova and Partric

Boys and girl learn in different ways. While the boys require more attention from the teachers and their peers, girls are more self-conscious, requiring less attention. The more attention that boys get from their teachers causes them to get a better education than girls because girls are more at unease with themselves. Also in physical education the girls are separate from boys even though they take the same classes and play the same sports; they are taught differently.

The coaches favor the boys more because they think the males are more serious about sports than any female could ever be.Even though boys and girls take the same classes with the same teachers they get a different education, this is due to general differences. Females are more invisible in the classroom than males. “Girls are the majority of out nations schoolchildren, yet they are second-class citizens.”

They should feel equal to males and be able to express their true opinion and be confident of what they say. If a girl has an opinion and wants to express it, she should not hold back because she does not know how the male classmates wouldreact to her opinion.It seems like the classrooms are separated into two very different groups. One being the actors, who are the males of the class and the observers or spectators, who are obviously the females of the class.Male students control classroom conversation. They ask and answer more questions. They receive more praise for the intellectual quality of their ideas. They get criticized. They get help when they are confused. They are the heart and the center of interaction. Watch how boys dominate the discussions.

In conclusion, the schools do have unequal education for boys and girls. Boys get more attention than girls do in classrooms and even more in sports.

3. The different of male and female in the workplace

There are four different of male and female in the workplace:

• Women Are Team Players

Women were found to be more receptive to team efforts in the workplace than their male counterparts, according to a 2005 study by Catalyst. The study declared women as more “supportive and rewarding” in leadership roles. A second study during the same year by Caliper showed that women employed more compassionate and constructive behavior in regards to their team. Furthermore, women proved to be more persuasive and scored higher than men when it came to both persuasiveness and assertiveness.

• Men Are Strong Negotiators

While gender roles in the workplace are not as clear-cut as they used to be, many men still retain their sense of privilege, possibly allowing them to be better negotiators. A 2003 study focused on students graduating with master’s degrees found that men were able to negotiate salaries 7.6 percent higher than women entering the workforce. More than half of the men were able to negotiate for more money, while just 7 percent of women did. Furthermore, men tend to be more willing to ask for raises than women.

• Women Accept More Challenges

Possibly due to always being underestimated, women in the workplace are more likely to work harder and take on more responsibilities. In a 2009 study by Accenture, 70 percent of women in the workplace wanted to be challenged more, while less than half of working men asked for the same challenges. Because of their increased workload, women are also more likely to go into overtime than men. Hardworking women also tend to shrug off vacations to tackle their workload and call in sick less.

• Men are More Confident

Men generally feel more confident in their work environment than women. Far from an evolutionary trait, and more likely a privilege trait, men are more willing to “wing it” on tasks they aren’t prepared for. In contrast, many women may feel unprepared even when they have prepared diligently. This confidence, or perhaps simply being male, reigns in more promotions than women, as men are more likely to be mentored by senior executives, according to the Harvard Business Review.

Referensi

http://genderrolesaroundtheworld.weebly.com/saudi-arabia.html#/

http://highered.mheducation.com

http://woman.thenest.com/female-vs-male-roles-workplace-14452.htmlFemale

http://www.csun.edu/-pb48827/grouppro.html

http://www.e-ir.info/2011/07/28/gender-equality-in-australia/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_role

https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/sex-and-gender/gender-roles

http://study.com/academy/lesson/gender-roles-in-1950s-america.html

http://people.howstuffworks.com/men-women-roles-changing.htm

https://borgenproject.org/potential-of-women-in-africa/

http://geography.name/gender-roles-and-sexuality/

Comparison Degree

Definition of Comparison

According to Salim Mansyur,M.Pd & Nurholis, S.S. Comparison degrees is a word that is used for comparison of properties of an object with another object properties

based on Pardiono Comparison degrees is a sentence with comparative pattern, which is used to express the meaning of the comparison.

Comparison is an expression used to comparhe properties of an object with another object. comparison other than apply the adjective can also apply to the verb by adding “more” after the verb.

Types of Comparison Degree:

1. Positive Degree

Positive degree or commonly called an equal comparison, meaning that there are two things than that have similarities. As affixes usually have meaning Se- ( in bahasa )

The Pattern of Sentence :

1. Adverb	Subject 1	Verb	As adverb as	Subject 2
2. Adjective	Subject 1	To be	As adjective as	Subject 2

Example :

(Adverb)

1. Andi runs as fast as Ronaldo (Andi berlari secepat Ronaldo)
2. They walked as slowly as a duck (Mereka berjalan selambat bebek)

(Adjective)

1. She is as beautiful as Amy Lee. (Dia secantik Amy Lee.
2. My father was as old as his grandfather (Ayahku setua kakeknya)

Note: How if we want to make a negative comparison degree?

Example :

a. She is studying as lazily as he. (She is studying not so/as lazily as he.)

b. Lampung is as hot as Bali (Lampung is not so/as hot as Bali).

(Noun)

3. Noun

Subject 1

Predicate

The same (noun) as

Subject 2

 

Example:

1. Gerrard is the same age asRickie Lambert.
2. They spoke the same languageas you.

2. Comparative Degree

In the form of comparative degree or unequal comparison, two were compared, one of which has to mean more or less (greater or lesser degree).

The Pattern for Comparative Degree :

Subject 1	Verb/tobe	Adjective/adverb	-er	than	subject 2
		More/less	Adj./adv.

Example:

(Adjective)

1. She is taller than I
2. You are more diligent than she

(Adverb)

1. Sterling runs faster than Januzaj
2. She works harder than her mother
3. He walked more slowly thanhis grandfather.

Note :

no specific pattern to ‘intensify’ or the comparison so far by adding the word much / far before the adjective / adverbnya.

Example :

(Adjective)

1. She is much/far tallerthan I (dia sangat lebih tinggi daripadaaku)
2. You are much/far more diligent than she.

(Adverb)

1. Sterling runs much/far faster than Januzaj.
2. She works much harder than her mother.
3. He walked much more slowly than his grandfather.

3. Superlative Degree

The superlative degree or be referred to the highest degree, in the Indonesian language can be defined by the word “most”. In the superlative degree, there are at least three people / objects being compared. Here is the pattern:

Subject1	Verb/tobe	The	Most/least	Adverb/adjective
			Adjective/adverb	-est

Example :

(Adjective)

1. Dhila is the most beautiful lady in my class
2. Amir was the tallest son in his family

(Adverb)

1. Jonny run the most quickly in the competition last week.
2. She cries the most loudly of all the babies in the hospital.

 

References

Dr. Agus Salim Mansyur, M.Pd and Nurholis, S.S,Learning English Grammar, Bandung ,CV Pustaka Setia. 2008

Pardiyono,Communicative Grammar for EASY conversation,Yogyakarta , CV Andi Offset.2010

http://inggrisonline.com/penjelasan-lengkap-tentang-degree-of-comparison-superlative-comparative/

http://www.kuliahbahasainggris.com/penjelasan-degrees-of-comparison-dalam-bahasa-inggris-dan-contoh-kalimat/

http://bahasainggrisonlines.blogspot.co.id/2012/12/The-Degrees-of-Comparison.html

http://www.carabelajarbahasainggrisoke.com/2014/09/pengertian-atau-penjelasan-degree-comparison-dan-contohnya.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Thanks for joining me!

Good company in a journey makes the way seem shorter. — Izaak Walton